The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape and
Survival: Training for Evaders and Resistors
in WWII: Its Application by Foreign Area Officers


by LTC Rod Propst, USA (Retired), Latin American FAO

A small convoy providing peace-keeping support is surprised and captured by an anti- government militia a foot patrol in a humanitarian support role crosses an unmarked boundary, is isolated, arrested, and held by an opposition police force a pilot enforcing a no- fly zone is downed a USG contractor and his family on a weekend vacation in a foreign country are kidnapped a Defense Attaché conducting a collection mission is detained a foreign area officer conducting regional familiarization training is questioned at a remote security checkpoint...through USG Security Assistance programs, a Special Operations Force conducting drug enforcement training is captured.

All of these situations mirror problems the United States Government must face daily in today's complex operational environment. They all share the common thread of how a person should act, for example in accordance with the Code of Conduct, when placed in a situation of this type. They all serve to demonstrate that the prepared professional, especially those in high risk of capture assignments which characterize many foreign area officer assignments, needs a solid grounding in escape and evasion. Much can be said about the need for common, joint, universal training in escape and evasion--much as that given in the case of Code of Conduct training or the four-tiered Force Protection training currently provided service members, their families, and USG contractors. But one need not wait for formal training opportunities to gain insights into this subject.

The training of soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines in their proper conduct during conflict when separated from friendly forces is as important today as it has ever been; it becomes even more critical when uniformed members must survive, evade, resist, and escape. The instruction of Service personnel begins during initial entry training, and continues throughout a military career. Certain high risk, high threat jobs require specialized training; foreign area officers assigned abroad are prime candidates for this training and the primary audience for this article on 1) evasion and escape historical summary, and 2) the MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival and its applicability to the modern foreign area officer. This type of specialized training truly began for U.S. personnel only during World War Two. But how did the initial training of U.S. personnel in S.E.R.E. really begin and what did that training include?--that is the story to be told here. Most importantly, why and how does this matter to the serving foreign area officer? Before we demonstrate the applicability to the current FAO corps, it is instructive to introduce a bit of history, in the form of previous accounts of evasion and escape, to place the story in its proper context.

Evasion and Escape Accounts

The history of escape and evasion accounts can be traced back thousands of years. However, the first era in which mass formations of troops resulted in greater numbers of prisoners, producing significant accounts of evasion and escape, was the Napoleonic Era. First-person British accounts of evasion and escape from this general timeframe are numerous, including D.E. O'Brien in My Adventures in the Late War, Edward Boys in Narrative of a Captivity, Escape, and Adventure in France and Flanders during the War, and accounts of the experiences of Antony Brett-James in Escape from the French; these are balanced by the story of Napoleon's own escape from Elba. Continuing this tradition, Sir Winston Churchill's account of his escape, contained in My Early Life, during the Boer War complements these accounts.

Both World Wars of the twentieth century produced a rich escape and evasion literature. The First World War's evaders continued this tradition of S.E.R.E accounts; among the most notable of these are A.J. Evans The Escaping Club, the more important since his experiences were put to use during World War Two when Evans worked for the British escape organization, MI9; and M.C.C. Harrison and H.A. Cartwright's classic Within Four Walls. World War Two produced numerous accounts as well, including those of Eric Williams' The Wooden Horse, Foot and Langley's MI9: Escape and Evasion 1939-1945, Ian Dear's Escape and Evasion, Leo Heap's The Grey Goose of Arnhem, J.M. Langley's Fight Another Day, Airey Neave's Saturday at MI9 and They Have Their Exits, John Hackett's I Was a Stranger, Paul Brickhill's The Great Escape, Sam Derry's Rome Escape Line, Helen Long's Safe Houses Are Dangerous, Watt's Comet Line, and Paul Reid's Colditz--among many others.

Nick Rowe's Five Years to Freedom and William Anderson's Bat- 21, during the Vietnam Era; Andy McNabb's Bravo Two Zero, from the British SAS during the Gulf War; and the recent Return with Honor by Scott O'Grady continue these lively first-person accounts. In earlier times evaders had no preparation in either how to evade or how to act if taken prisoner; over time, this training evolved to its present state. But British and American organizations formed in the late 1930s and throughout World War Two were the genuine beginning of organized evasion and resistance training.

With this rudimentary bibliography to escape and evasion, it is useful to understood how the Manual came into being, and the organization which developed it.

MI9: The British Launch S.E.R.E. Training

MI9 was the British organization formed to assist evaders and POWs. Its roots can be traced to the MI1 in World War One. It was reformed prior to the declaration of war in 1939, and initially commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Gerald Templar, followed rapidly by A.R. Rawlinson. Templar had approached the Director of Military Intelligence on creating an organization to help POWs escape; the MIR, a predecessor to the British sabotage unit (Special Operations Executive--SOE) director, Major J.F.C. Holland, supported the concept and furthered his support by writing a proposal to the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC). The JIC approved the concept, chartering the new escape and evasion organization in December, 1939, and selecting Major Norman R. Crockatt as its head. Among its several missions, that of training fell to MI9(d).

MI9 operated in London under the cover name of Intelligence School 9 (IS9). IS9(w) interrogated both evaders and escapers in order to better focus evasion training and collect intelligence. At the same time IS9(x) conducted escape planning and provided escape aids to POWs. Communication via codes was managed by IS9(y). And IS9(z) produced the evasion and escape equipment. MI9(d)'s dual purpose was to train personnel and to provide evasion and escape equipment to isolated, uniformed personnel.

It was the MI9(d) instructors who lectured on survival, evasion, resistance, and escape. It was first hammered into the heads of trainees that, even after capture, they remained obligated to act properly, which included escaping or occupying large numbers of enemy to prohibit their escape. Their instruction also included actions to be taken by the evaders, to include the actions once in the hands of an escape line--often also known as "ratlines". Surviving evaders often provided first-hand accounts during this training. It also included actions one must take during the resistance phase. Over half a million British persons received this training during World War Two. As America entered the War, it too saw the value of first-class S.E.R.E. training.

MIS-X: The Americans Organize for S.E.R.E. Training

MI9's equivalent organization in the U.S. was MIS-X. The U.S. general staff at the beginning of World War Two included the Military Intelligence Division (MID). Within the MID, the operational arm was the Military Intelligence Service (MIS). One of the operational MIS directorates was the Captured Personnel and Material Branch, led by Colonel C. ap C. Jones. The first of ap C. Jones' specialized POW organizations dealt not with U.S. prisoners, but rather with Axis POWs. This unit, formed in late 1942 to interrogate POWs, was identified as MIS-Y, and commanded by Colonel Russell Sweet. At the suggestion (despite his earlier misgivings) of the Secretary of War Stimson, the Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall, also stood up a unit designed to assist evaders and potential POW escapers. The MIS-Y sister evasion and escape organization was known as MIS-X, and was commanded throughout the War by Colonel J. Edward Johnston. Both MIS-Y and MIS-X were collectively known as "1142"--based on the P.O. Box number of the Fort Hunt, Alexandria, Virginia address.

MIS-X paralleled the British model. The commander of the U.S. Army Air Force in World War Two, Major General Carl Spaatz, had been introduced to MI9 and Brigadier Crockatt in early 1942. Among the staff officers who Spaatz directed to form an organization similar to MI-9 was Colonel W. Stull Holt. Holt's specific directions were to study and learn the British evasion and escape techniques and instruction, using that information to form the U.S. training equivalent. MIS-X's initial charter includes eight specific areas of focus; the first three of these apply to the training focus of this study:

- to indoctrinate uniformed personnel in evasion and after capture;

- to provide instruction on escape and escape psychology, and;

- to provide instruction in proper post-capture conduct.

It was only left to MIS-X to organize itself to meet these three missions [and the other five missions, not meaningful for the scope of this study].

MIS-X had five sections. These included interrogation; correspondence, which dealt with codes; Axis prisoner of war camp locations, to preclude bombing by Allied forces; technical, which supplied evasion and escape aids, and; the training and briefing section. It is with the training and briefing section and its program of instruction's training model on which we shall focus.

The MIS-X Evasion and Resistance Training Model of World War Two

It has been difficult to recreate the activity of MIS-X. At the end of World War Two the U.S. general staff's Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence, the G-2 Major General George Strong, gave the order to destroy all records of MIS-X. This order was complied with, as eye- witness Lloyd Shoemaker describes in The Escape Factory. Not only were records destroyed, but all buildings were razed to the ground with no indications at Fort Hunt of what had been there previously in support of U.S. evaders and escapers in the War. Therefore, much of what is known of MIS-X is based on Shoemaker's recollections contained in that book; however, the focus of Shoemaker's account is on the development of evasion and escape aids, not with training. However, some additional documents have survived that destruction. Incredibly enough one of these documents is the MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival.

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival was developed in February, 1944, for instructors by the staff of COL Russell Sweet for the briefing staff of COL Johnston and classified TOP SECRET. Colonel Catesby ap C. Jones gave the manual this high classification in January of 1943, unusual for a training manual, stating " The Germans have been assisted in this war effort by their knowledge of the methods of securing information used by the Allies during the 1914-1918 War. This knowledge was revealed by persons who, after the war wrote articles and books about their work Nothing concerning methods or sources should be revealed during or after this war, for the benefit of present or future enemies of the United States." Clearly, ap C. Jones would not have his manual create the same sort of problem.

In his cover letter to the MIS-X briefing teams contained in the manual, Colonel Johnston clearly stated its training focus, " Upon the briefers of this branch rests the responsibility to inspire the men of the Armed Forces of the United States with a determination to outwit the enemy and carry on the fight even when cut off from their own units or when actually captured by the enemy. The briefers have the added responsibility of telling how it is done and pressing home the point with such clarity and force that, when alone in enemy territory, the soldier who has heard them will know what to do." He ends his cover letter by recognizing the parallel nature of this information and training with that provided the British armed forces by MI9.

Somehow this training manual survived the destruction order. Sweet retained the classification, however reducing it to SECRET in July, 1947. Colonel Harold Forde of the Fort Leavenworth Command and General Staff College's School of Intelligence was provided a classified copy by Colonel E.W. Ridings of the War Department's General Staff in October 1947. The manual was not declassified until August, 1994; its information is now in the public domain, the result of numerous articles and books on the subject of escape and evasion. However, as a detailed primary source record of our United States' Armed Forces first formal training to its personnel on survival, evasion, resistance, and escape, it is an enormously valuable source of information and insight.

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival first section is a general security primer. However, it goes beyond the normal general security briefing by concentrating on the aspects of evasion, resistance, and escape. It stresses how security can be negatively influenced in the smallest, seemingly insignificant ways by involving family and friends and providing small bits of information. It then stressed the modern, more sophisticated intelligence systems which World War II was producing; the focus on espionage directed against all uniformed personnel went well beyond the previously existing briefings on security. The section also discusses the destruction of equipment and even how to address letters to reduce security concerns. The section outlines basic material, although its combination of a basic security briefing with aspects of escape, evasion, resistance, and espionage makes it a bit unwieldy. The introductory section closes with an explanation of why this highly classified information was given to the recipients and the heavy obligation they had to protect this information.

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival second section deals with the Geneva Convention. The Geneva Convention training given by MIS-X to uniformed personnel greatly exceeds the introductory training provided our current armed forces. Its introduction represents a fairly standard introduction to the Convention and the principal application of its general tenets. However, the briefing then moves to a detailed description evacuation from combat zones and notification of capture, Articles seven and eight. It then outlines details of POW camps and housing, contained in Articles nine and ten. All of Articles' eleven through fifteens' guidelines on food, clothing, and sanitary services required are then highlighted. The provision by the enemy of intellectual and morale needs of prisoners, Articles sixteen and seventeen, are then mentioned. Significant detail in the internal discipline expected of POWs, as contained in Articles eighteen through twenty, are then instructed. After a very brief introduction to finances of POWs (Articles twenty-three and --four), detailed guidance on POW work (Article twenty-seven) and prohibited labor (Article thirty-one) is provided the trainees. The external relations of POWs, contained in Articles thirty-six through forty, are then presented. The correct POW relationships with capturing authorities receives very specific attention, as provided for in Article forty-two. Penalties which may be applied to Prisoners, Articles forty-five through sixty-four, are then summarized in a brief fashion. The Summary is a clear, concise capture of this lengthy and complex information. That Summary includes the Soldier's Ten Commandments, the soldiers' rights and privileges, the information a soldier must give and the corresponding information any soldier must not give, and a lecture on "knowing your rights".

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival third section deals with resisting interrogation. This initial training on resistance is fairly detailed, and gives any potential resistor a great deal of background that would prove useful as one executes this difficult mission. Its general introduction provides information on why interrogation is conducted, and what the procedures used by interrogators include. It then follows with a good overview of what prisoners could expect in Axis POW camps for both enlisted and officer service members. It then introduces some of the basic interrogator tricks of the trade that could be employed against our POWs. An initial lesson on the types of questioning and the most common traps follows; it is quickly followed by a very detailed explanation of techniques. The five approaches of a direct interrogation receive first discussion--the Despair Approach, the Friendly Approach, the Ridicule and Provocation Approach, The Threat versus Rescue Approach, and the Disgrace Approach. The five indirect approaches receive second discussion--the Technical Argument Approach, the Hour of Charm Approach, the Appeal to Vanity Approach, the Medical Approach, and the Show-off Knowledge Approach. The six most used traps are then revealed--the Red Cross Form, the Stool Pigeon, the Informal Chat, the Unit Identification trick, Microphones, and the use of Solitary Confinement. Based on these several approaches and guidelines, a basic primer on conduct during any interrogation is provided. Before closing, the very different methods used by the Japanese are provided. This section closes with a caution that interrogation can occur at any time and may not appear to be a questioning, that any answers may assist enemy propaganda efforts. It closes by reminding that any answers--other than those basic answers to be provided in accordance with the Geneva Convention--could result in court-martial.

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival fourth section deals with Axis Prisoner of War camps. The two major sub-divisions of this section are the German camps and the Japanese camps. Within those two sections are significant detail on what uniformed personnel could expect at any POW camp. First the sections present the flow from the front lines through all centers to the ultimate destination of the permanent POW camp. They differences between officer and enlisted camps are then highlighted. Basic discussions of legal rights, security, general conditions, treatment, standard policies, and the operational aspects of a POWs daily life follow. Most interesting is the detailed discussion of the several escape committees resident on all camps. This information provides a wealth of information to the modern reader, and must have been incredibly valuable to downed airmen or captured ground troops. It is perhaps the most interesting of the several chapters in the MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival. The closing section deals with general summaries of morale, parole, and behavior.

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival fifth, sixth, and seventh sections deal with evasion, survival, and escape in the European and Asian theaters of operations. Before detailing the early portions of this section of the program of instruction, we jump to the end segments. The end segments offer a capsule version of the current friendly and enemy situation in each theater, and links that situation to evasion and escape. The detail covers most elements of a basic security/intelligence briefing; it is information that must have been highly perishable, but provides the modern reviewer with an appreciative understanding of the limits of what the general staff really knew about the enemy and other on-ground situations at the time; it must have been invaluable to the recipients. The Manual's opening quote had to be enough to get the trainees undivided attention--" I knew nothing. I had never thought of this problem before. Half an hour of instruction from someone who knew would have saved me eighteen months of captivity." This is a resounding endorsement of the MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival and the training given using the Manual. Having provided the introductory remarks on theaters, the lesson plan highlights the clear duties and obligations of all uniformed personnel [duties and obligations which served as foundational principles for the formation of both MIS-X and MI9(d)]--

"It is a soldier's DUTY to his country and to his unit to escape from the enemy It should further be a matter of personal pride You are to escape at any and every reasonable opportunity The military principle involved is to pin down as much enemy personnel as possible This causes him much internal trouble by forcing the employment of large groups which could otherwise be used in front line operations."

The section then addresses the academic preparation for evasion--embodied by the instruction using this Manual. It then highlights the physical aids required for successful evasion--including the big, essential three of map, compass, water. Before moving to its final section on the theaters the section then provides a good academic grounding in the mechanics of both solo and group evasion, included both unassisted and assisted evasion.

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival eighth and final section is the Program of Instruction's directions for the briefers/teachers. This section is fascinating reading. It consists mainly of summary sheets for all previous lesson plans. This is presented in the manner of presentation notes summaries for the instructors or briefers. While most of the information is contained in the previous sections, there are elements of these lesson notes which are new, in addition to their more clear and concise presentation in this format. The modern briefer on the subject can take away valuable insights using this tool, which is by now almost sixty years old.

MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival: Relevance to Today's Foreign Area Officer

The MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival is a fine source for current foreign area officers. It contains much which applies today. Defense Attaches, Security Assistance Officers, military-to-military trainers, official visitors, and future foreign area officers conducting familiarization travel may often be at high risk [of capture or of kidnapping/detainment] as they conduct either their training, contact, collection, or familiarization duties. For that reason, a basic grounding, or "rebluing" using these tough lessons learned makes a read of this Manual a value-added. Additionally, the significant number of visitors which often pass through the hands of our FAOs deployed forward around the world indicates that this Manual can serve as a valuable tool for building briefings for travelers in country. The wide variety of visitors combined with an ever-widening mission profile scope--NEOs, humanitarian operations, peacekeeping-- increases the challenge to the FAO to keep up-to-date and pass that timely information to a wider, concerned audience in the country of assignment. The Manual also serves as a background training tool on a wide variety of sensitive areas for foreign area officers, such as Code of Conduct, what to expect in a general sense during captivity, interrogation or questioning techniques which could be used against the FAO, even a general security reminder set. Up-to-date information, of course, exists; however, for the interested military professional, this introductory primer

The Manual also serves for the audience outside of the foreign area officer core group audience as a constant reminder that the methods we continue to use from the MIS-X Manual on Evasion, Escape, and Survival can be inadvertently and improperly provided to future enemies and should be properly safeguarded. But the Manual's most significant value is as the best existing example of the beginnings of modern survival, evasion, resistance, and escape training provided to uniformed service members and a "How-To" guide for practical application of the contents.

Rod Propst is a retired Army LTC with extensive national asset unit and Latin America experience, including a tour as a Defense Attaché in Mexico. He has a Masters Degree in Latin American Studies from the University of Texas, Austin, and is a War College-trained Defense Strategist. He is the Manager of the Technical Assessments Division at Analytic Services (ANSER), Inc. in Arlington, Virginia- -leading ANSER's support to Special Operations Forces and Personnel Recovery and S.E.R.E.

2002, Foreign Area Officer Association
Springfield, Virginia
Maintained by LTC Steve Gotowicki.
http://www.faoa.org